The history of the missions of the Jesuits The Society of Jesus is a religious order of men called Jesuits, who follow the teachings of the Catholic Church. Jesuit priests and brothers — also sometimes known colloquially as "God's marines" — are engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations on six continents reflecting the Formula of the Institute (principle) in China China is seen variously as an ancient civilization extending over a large area in East Asia, a nation and/or a multinational entity is part of the history of relations between China and the Western world The Western world, also known as the West and the Occident , is a term that can have multiple meanings depending on its context (e.g., the time period, the region or social situation). Accordingly, the basic definition of what constitutes "the West" varies, expanding and contracting over time, in relation to various historical. The missionary efforts and other work of the Society of Jesus The Society of Jesus is a religious order of the Catholic Church. It has only male members; they are called Jesuits. Jesuit priests and brothers — also sometimes known colloquially as "God's marines" — are engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations on six continents reflecting the Formula of the Institute (, or Jesuits, between the 16th and 17th century played a significant role in continuing the transmission of knowledge, science, and culture between China and the West, and had an impact on Christian culture in Chinese society Christianity in China is a growing minority religion that comprises Protestants , Catholics (天主教 Tiān zhǔ jiào Lord of Heaven Religion), and a small number of Orthodox Christians. Although its lineage in China is not as ancient as beliefs such as Confucianism, Taoism, or Mahayana Buddhism, Christianity has existed in China since at least today.
The first attempt by the Jesuits to reach China was made in 1552 by St. Francis Xavier Saint Francis Xavier, born Francisco de Jasso y Azpilicueta was a pioneering Roman Catholic missionary born in the Kingdom of Navarre (Spain) and co-founder of the Society of Jesus. He was a student of Saint Ignatius Loyola and one of the first seven Jesuits who dedicated themselves to the service of God at Montmartre in 1534. He led an extensive, Spanish priest and missionary and founding member of the Society of Jesus. Xavier never reached the mainland, dying after only a year on the Chinese island of Shangchuan. Three decades later, in 1582, Jesuits once again initiated mission A Christian mission has been widely defined, since the Lausanne Congress of 1974, as that which is designed "to form a viable indigenous church-planting and world changing movement." This definition is motivated by a theologically imperative theme of the Bible to make God known, as outlined in the Great Commission. The definition is work in China, led by several figures including the Italian Matteo Ricci Matteo Ricci was born in 1552 in Macerata, today a city in the Italian region of Marche and then part of the Papal States. Ricci started learning theology and law in a Roman Jesuits' school. He entered the religious order in 1571, and in 1577 he filed an application to be a member of a missionary expedition to India. His journey began in March 1578, introducing Western science, mathematics, astronomy, and visual arts to the imperial court The Emperor of China refers to any sovereign of Imperial China reigning since the founding of China, united by the King of Qin in 221 BC until the fall of Yuan Shikai's Empire of China in 1916. When referred to as the Son of Heaven (Chinese: 天子 tiānzì), a title that predates the Qin unification, the Emperor was recognized as the ruler of &, and carrying on significant inter-cultural and philosophical dialogue with Chinese scholars, particularly representatives of Confucianism Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius . It is a complex system of moral, social, political, philosophical, and quasi-religious thought that has had tremendous influence on the culture and history of East Asia. It might be considered a state religion of some East. At the time of their peak influence, members of the Jesuit delegation were considered some of the emperor's most valued and trusted advisors, holding numerous prestigious posts in the imperial government.[citation needed] Many Chinese, including notable former Confucian scholars,[vague] adopted Christianity and became priests and members of the Society of Jesus.
According to research by David E. Mungello, from 1552 (i.e., the death of St. Francis Xavier) to 1800, a total of 920 Jesuits participated in the China misson; of whom 314 were Portuguese, and another 130 were French.[2] In 1844 China may have had 240,000 Roman Catholics, but this number grew rapidly, and in 1901 the figure reached 720,490.[3] Many Jesuit priests, both Western-born and Chinese, are buried in the cemetery located in what is now the School of the Beijing Municipal Committee.[4]
Contents |
The Jesuits in China
The arrival of Jesuits
Nicolas Trigault Nicolas Trigault was a French Jesuit, and a missionary to China. He was also known by his latinised name Trigautius or Trigaultius, and his Chinese name Jīn Nígé (金尼阁) (1577-1629) in Chinese costume, by Peter Paul Rubens Sir Peter Paul Rubens was a prolific seventeenth-century Flemish Baroque painter, and a proponent of an extravagant Baroque style that emphasized movement, color, and sensuality. He is well-known for his Counter-Reformation altarpieces, portraits, landscapes, and history paintings of mythological and allegorical subjects. Matteo Ricci (left) and Xu Guangqi Xu Guangqi , courtesy name Zixian (子先), was a Chinese bureaucrat, agricultural scientist, astronomer, and mathematician in the Ming Dynasty. Xu was a colleague and collaborator of the Italian Jesuits Matteo Ricci and Sabatino de Ursis and they translated several classic Western texts into Chinese, including part of Euclid's Elements. He was (right) in the Chinese edition of Euclid's Elements Euclid's Elements is a mathematical and geometric treatise consisting of 13 books written by the Greek mathematician Euclid in Alexandria circa 300 BC. It is a collection of definitions, postulates (axioms), propositions (theorems and constructions), and mathematical proofs of the propositions. The thirteen books cover Euclidean geometry and the published in 1607.Contacts between Asia and the west already dated back hundreds of years, especially between the Papacy The Pope (from Latin: papa; from Greek: πάππας, a child's word for father) is the Bishop of Rome, a position that makes him the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church (that is, the Latin Rite and the Eastern Catholic Churches in full communion with the see of Rome). The current office-holder is Pope Benedict XVI, who was elected in a papal and the Mongol Empire The Mongol Empire (Mongolian: Монголын Эзэнт Гүрэн , Mongolyn Ezent Güren or Их Mонгол улс, Ikh Mongol Uls) was an empire from the 13th and 14th century spanning from Eastern Europe across Asia. It is the largest contiguous empire in the history of the world. It emerged from the unification of Mongol and Turkic tribes in the 13th century. There were also numerous traders that traveled between the continents, the most famous of which is Marco Polo Marco Polo (English pronunciation: /ˈmɑrkoʊ ˈpoʊloʊ/ ; Italian pronunciation: [ˈmarko ˈpɔːlo]) (c. 1254 – January 8, 1324) was a merchant from the Venetian Republic who wrote Il Milione, which introduced Europeans to Central Asia and China. He learned about trading whilst his father and uncle, Niccolò and Maffeo, travelled through. Christianity was not new to the Mongols, as many had been practicing Nestorian Christianity since the 7th century (see Christianity among the Mongols). However, the overthrow of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty The Yuan Dynasty , Mongolian: Dai Ön Ulus/Дай Юан Улс), or Great Yuan Empire (simplified Chinese: 大元帝国; traditional Chinese: 大元帝國; pinyin: Dà Yuán Dìguó) was both the continuation of the Mongol Empire and the Mongol founded historical state in Mongolia and China, lasting officially from 1271 to 1368. Although the by the Ming The Ming Dynasty , or Empire of the Great Ming (simplified Chinese: 大明国; traditional Chinese: 大明國; pinyin: Dà Míng Guó, also anachronistically simplified Chinese: 大明帝国; traditional Chinese: 大明帝國; pinyin: Dà Míng Dìguó), was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led in 1368 resulted in a strong assimilatory Cultural assimilation is a political response to the demographic fact of multi-ethnicity which encourages absorption of the minority into the dominant culture. It is opposed to affirmative philosophy which recognizes and seeks to maintain differences pressure on China's Muslim, Jewish, and Christian communities, and outside influences were forced out of China. By the 16th century, there is no reliable information about any practicing Christians remaining in China.
The first Portuguese explorer credited with reaching China was Jorge Álvares Jorge Álvares is credited as the first Portuguese explorer to have reached China and Hong Kong. The Fundação Jorge Álvares (Jorge Álvares Foundation), founded by Vasco Joaquim Rocha Vieira prior to the handover of Macau, got its name for also having reached there in the 1500s. Unlike the early European travelers of the 14th and 15th century, who reached China overland by traveling thousands of miles through Mongol- or Muslim-controlled territory, during the Age of Discovery The Age of Discovery, also known as the Age of Exploration, was a period in history starting in the 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century, during which Europeans and their descendants intensively explored and mapped the world. Historians often refer to the 'Age of Discovery' as the period of Portuguese and Spanish pioneer oceanic of the 15th to 17th centuries, Europeans were arriving to China's southeastern coast in their own boats, from Portuguese-controlled Malacca Malacca is the third smallest Malaysian state, after Perlis and Penang. It is located in the southern region of the Malay Peninsula, on the Straits of Malacca. It borders Negeri Sembilan to the north and the state of Johor to the south. The capital is Malacca Town. This historical city centre has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 7 or the Spanish Philippines The Philippines , officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (Filipino: Republika ng Pilipinas), is a country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam. The Sulu Sea to the southwest lies between the country and the island of Borneo, and.
Fairly soon after the establishment of the direct European maritime contact with China (1513), and the creation of the Society of Jesus The Society of Jesus is a religious order of the Catholic Church. It has only male members; they are called Jesuits. Jesuit priests and brothers — also sometimes known colloquially as "God's marines" — are engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations on six continents reflecting the Formula of the Institute ( (1540), at least some Chinese become involved with the Jesuit effort. As early as 1546, two Chinese boys became enrolled into the Jesuits' St. Paul's College in Goa Goa (pronounced /ˈɡoʊ.ə/ ; Konkani: गोंय) is India's smallest state by area and the fourth smallest by population. Located in South West India in the region known as the Konkan, it is bounded by the state of Maharashtra to the north, and by Karnataka to the east and south, while the Arabian Sea forms its western coast. Goa is India's, the capital of Portuguese India. It is one of these two Christian Chinese, known as Antonio, who accompanied St. Francis Xavier Saint Francis Xavier, born Francisco de Jasso y Azpilicueta was a pioneering Roman Catholic missionary born in the Kingdom of Navarre (Spain) and co-founder of the Society of Jesus. He was a student of Saint Ignatius Loyola and one of the first seven Jesuits who dedicated themselves to the service of God at Montmartre in 1534. He led an extensive, a co-founder of the Society of Jesus, when he decided to start missionary work in China. However, Xavier was not able to find a way to enter the Chinese mainland, and died in 1552 on Shangchuan island off the coast of Guangdong Guangdong is a province on the southern coast of People's Republic of China. The province was previously often written with the alternative English name Kwangtung Province. It surpassed Henan and Sichuan to become the most populous province in China in January 2005, registering 79 million permanent residents and 31 million migrants who lived in,[5] the only place in China where Europeans were allowed to stay at the time, but only for seasonal trade.
A few years after Xavier's death, the Portuguese were allowed to establish Macau Macau , also known as Macao (pronounced /məˈkaʊ/) is one of the two special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China, the other being Hong Kong. Macau lies on the western side of the Pearl River Delta, bordering Guangdong province to the north and facing the South China Sea in the east and south, a semi-permanent settlement on the mainland which was about 100 km closer to the Pearl River Delta The Pearl River Delta or Zhusanjiao (simplified Chinese: 珠江三角洲; traditional Chinese: 珠江三角洲; pinyin: Zhūjiāng Sānjiǎozhōu) in southern People's Republic of China is the low-lying area alongside the Pearl River estuary where the Pearl River flows into the South China Sea. Since economic liberalisation was adopted by the than Shangchuan Island. A number of Jesuits visited the place (as well as the main Chinese port in the region, Guangzhou Guangzhou (simplified Chinese: 广 ) on occasions, and in 1563, the Order established its permanent presence in the small Portuguese colony. However, the early Macau Jesuits did not learn Chinese, and their missionary work could reach only the very small number of Chinese people in Macau who spoke Portuguese.[6]
It was the new regional manager ("Visitor") of the order, Alessandro Valignano Alessandro Valignano, (February 15, 1539 - January 20, 1606 ), was a Neapolitan Jesuit missionary who helped supervise the introduction of Catholicism to the Far East, and especially to Japan, who, on his visit to Macau in 1578-1579 realized that Jesuits weren't going to get far in China without a sound grounding in the language and culture of the country. He requested the Order's superiors in Goa to send a suitably talented person to Macau to start the study of Chinese. Accordingly, in 1579 the Italian Michele Ruggieri (1543–1607) was sent to Macau, and in 1582 he was joined at his task by another Italian, Matteo Ricci Matteo Ricci was born in 1552 in Macerata, today a city in the Italian region of Marche and then part of the Papal States. Ricci started learning theology and law in a Roman Jesuits' school. He entered the religious order in 1571, and in 1577 he filed an application to be a member of a missionary expedition to India. His journey began in March 1578 (1552–1610).[6]
Ricci's policy of accommodation
Ricci, Ruggieri, and their followers, had a desire of creating a Sino-Christian civilization that would match the Roman-Christian civilization of the West. Both Ricci and Ruggieri were determined to adapt to the religious qualities of the Chinese: Ruggieri to the common people, in whom Buddhist Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE. He is recognized by adherents as an and Taoist Taoism refers to a variety of related philosophical and religious traditions that have influenced Eastern Asia for more than two millennia, and have had a notable influence on the western world particularly since the 19th century. The word 道, Tao (or Dao, depending on the romanization scheme), roughly translates as, "path" or "way& elements predominated, and Ricci to the educated classes, where Confucianism Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius . It is a complex system of moral, social, political, philosophical, and quasi-religious thought that has had tremendous influence on the culture and history of East Asia. It might be considered a state religion of some East prevailed. Ricci, who arrived at the age of 30 and spent the rest of his life in China, wrote to the Jesuit houses in Europe and called for priests - men who would not only be "good", but also "men of talent, since we are dealing here with a people both intelligent and learned".[7]
A few responded, and Ricci began to train them so that they might approach the Chinese authorities, offering the court scholarly and scientific assistance. Ricci's followers had the deliberate intention of completely de-westernizing themselves, to make a Confucian adaptation of their style of life, patterns of thought, preaching and worship. Both Ricci and Ruggieri felt that it would be possible to "prove that the Christian doctrines were already laid down in the classical works of the Chinese people, albeit in disguise". Indeed, they and their followers were convinced that "the day would come when with one accord all missionaries in China would look in the ancient texts for traces of primal revelation".[8]
Map of the Far East in 1602, by Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci Matteo Ricci was born in 1552 in Macerata, today a city in the Italian region of Marche and then part of the Papal States. Ricci started learning theology and law in a Roman Jesuits' school. He entered the religious order in 1571, and in 1577 he filed an application to be a member of a missionary expedition to India. His journey began in March 1578 (1552–1610)Tension eventually developed between Ricci and his followers and those of Ruggieri. Ricci's focus was on adapting to Confucianism and strongly rejecting Taoism Taoism refers to a variety of related philosophical and religious traditions that have influenced Eastern Asia for more than two millennia, and have had a notable influence on the western world particularly since the 19th century. The word 道, Tao (or Dao, depending on the romanization scheme), roughly translates as, "path" or "way&, while Ruggieri's thesis was that there was a closer affinity between the Tao of Chinese thought and the incarnate Logos of the New Testament.[citation needed]
In 1584 Ruggieri published the first Jesuit Chinese book: Tien Zhu Shi-lu (天主實錄 The True Account of God).[9] In it he discussed the existence and attributes of God, as well as his providence. He explained how a man might know God through the natural law, the Mosaic law, and the Christian law. He wrote of the incarnation of Christ the Word and discussed the sacraments.
In his diary, Ricci wrote: "From morning to night, I am kept busy discussing the doctrines of our faith. Many desire to forsake their idols and become Christians".[10] His missionary directives were explicit:
Jesuits in China Jesuit astronomers with Chinese scholars, Les Astronomes, Beauvais tapestry, 18th century."The work of evangelization, of making Christians, should be carried on both in Peking and in the provinces… following the methods of pacific penetration and cultural adaptation. Europeanism is to be shunned. Contact with Europeans, specifically with the Portuguese 1st row: Afonso I • St. Anthony • Álvares Pereira • Vasco da Gama in Macau Macau , also known as Macao (pronounced /məˈkaʊ/) is one of the two special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China, the other being Hong Kong. Macau lies on the western side of the Pearl River Delta, bordering Guangdong province to the north and facing the South China Sea in the east and south, should be reduced to a minimum. Strive to make good Christians rather than multitudes of indifferent Christians… Eventually when we have a goodly number of Christians, then perhaps it would not be impossible to present some memorial to the Emperor asking that the right of Christians to practice their religion be accorded, inasmuch as is not contrary to the laws of China. Our Lord will make known and discover to us little by little the appropriate means for bringing about in this matter His holy will.[11]
When Ricci died in 1610 in Beijing, more than two thousand Chinese from all levels of society had confessed their faith in Jesus Christ. Just as Ricci spent his life in China, others of his followers did the same. This level of commitment was necessitated by logistical reasons: Travel from Europe to China took many months, and sometimes years; and learning the country's language and culture was even more time-consuming. When a Jesuit from China did travel back to Europe, he typically did it as a representative ("procurator") of the China Mission, entrusted with the task of recruiting more Jesuit priests to come to China, ensuring continued support for the Mission from the Church's central authorities, and creating favorable publicity for the Mission and its policies by publishing both scholarly and popular literature about China and Jesuits.[12] One time Chongzhen Emperor The Chongzhen Emperor (February 6, 1611 - April 25, 1644) was the 16th and last emperor of the Ming Dynasty in China. He reigned from 1627 to 1644, under an era name that means "honorable and auspicious" were nearly converted to Christianity and broke his idols.[13]
Dynastic change
The fall of the Ming Dynasty The Ming Dynasty , or Empire of the Great Ming (simplified Chinese: 大明国; traditional Chinese: 大明國; pinyin: Dà Míng Guó, also anachronistically simplified Chinese: 大明帝国; traditional Chinese: 大明帝國; pinyin: Dà Míng Dìguó), was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led (1644) and the conquest of China by the Manchu The Manchu people are a Tungusic people who originated in Manchuria (today's northeastern China). During their rise in the 17th century, with the help of the Ming dynasty rebels (such as general Wu Sangui), they came to power in China and founded the Qing Dynasty, which ruled China until the Xinhai Revolution of 1911, which established a Qing The Qing Dynasty , also known as the Manchu Dynasty, was the last ruling dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 (with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917). It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China regime brought some difficult years for the Jesuits in China. While some Jesuit fathers managed to impress Manchu commanders with a display of western science of ecclesiastical finery and to be politely invited to join the new order (as did Johann Adam Schall von Bell in Beijing in 1644, or Martino Martini in Wenzhou Wenzhou is a prefecture-level city in southeastern Zhejiang province, People's Republic of China. The area under its jurisdiction, which includes two satellite cities and six counties, had a population of 7,645,700 in 2007. About 1,423,600 residents live in Wenzhou's city proper. It borders Lishui to the west, Taizhou to the north, and looks out ca. 1645-46),[14] others endured imprisonment and privations, as did Lodovico Buglio and Gabriel de Magalhaes in Sichuan The province and its vicinity were the cradle of unique local civilizations, which can be dated back to at least the fifteenth century BC . Beginning from the ninth century BC, Shu (today Chengdu) and Ba (today Chongqing City) emerged as cultural and administrative centers where two rival kingdoms were established in 1647-48[15] or Alvaro Semedo in Canton Guangzhou (simplified Chinese: 广 in 1649. Later, Johann Grueber was in Beijing between 1656 and 1661.
The Chinese Jesuit Michael Alphonsius Shen Fu-Tsung visited France and Britain in 1684-1685. "The Chinese Convert" by Sir Godfrey Kneller Sir Godfrey Kneller, 1st Baronet was the leading portrait painter in England during the late 17th and early 18th centuries, and was court painter to British monarchs from Charles II to George I. His major works include The Chinese Convert (1687); a series of four portraits of Isaac Newton painted at various junctures of the latter's life; a series.During the several years of war between the newly established Qing and the Ming loyalist in southern China The Southern Ming Dynasty refers to the Ming loyalist regimes that existed in Southern China from 1644 to 1662 following the collapse of the Ming Dynasty and the capture of Beijing first by rebel armies led by Li Zicheng, and then by the forces of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty, it was not uncommon for some Jesuits to find themselves on different sides of the front lines: while Adam Schall was an important counselor of the Qing Shunzhi Emperor The Shunzhi Emperor was the second emperor of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty, and the first Qing emperor to rule over China proper from 1644 to 1661. He ascended to the throne at the age of five (six according to traditional Chinese age reckoning) in 1643 upon the death of his father Huang Taiji, but actual power during the early part of his reign in Beijing, Michał Boym travelled from the jungles of south-western China to Rome, carrying the plea of help from the court of the last Southern Ming emperor Zhu Youlang (the Yongli Emperor), and returned with the Pope's response that promised prayer, rather than military assistance.[16]
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Verbist its founder 19th century but after Ferdinand Verbiest the famous Jesuit astronomist well known in China for being a teacher of the emperor in the 17th century Since 1982 the Ferdinand Verbiest Foundation promotes the development of a relationship of cooperation with China It did so by initiating three programs one after the other the Pastoral Program
